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Microorganism
History
Evolution
More information: Timeline of evolution
unicellular organisms were the first ones life forms to develop on Earth, about 34 million years. The subsequent evolution was slow, and about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, all organisms are microscopic. Thus, most of the history of life on Earth the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in orange, is 220 million years, which shows that the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since the Triassic period.
The Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly and microbes such as bacteria can also freely exchange genes by conjugation, transformation and transduction between different species. This horizontal transfer of genes associated with a mutation rate other means high, and many of the genetic variation allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental constraints. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as has been the recent development of "super-bugs" resistant pathogenic bacteria modern antibiotics.
Pre-Microbiology
The possibility of microorganisms has been discussed for many centuries before their actual discovery in the 17th century. The first idea called for indicate the possibility of spreading diseases by agencies has never been a student of Roman Terentius Varro in a book entitled In the first century C. Agriculture in the warning against the location of a farm near the marsh
and because there are some tiny creatures that race can be seen through the eyes, which float in the air and enters the body through the mouth and nose and cause serious illness.
In the Canon of Medicine (1020), Ibn Al Ab Sn (Avicenna) described the secretion of the body is contaminated because of the foreign country before being infected. He also speculated as tuberculosis and other diseases can be contagious, ie, they were infectious diseases, and is used to limit the quarantine propagation.
When the Black Death bubonic plague arrived in Andalusia in Spain in the 14th century, Ibn Khatima wrote that infectious diseases are contagious caused by "minute" organisms enter the human body. Later, in 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposes that epidemic diseases are caused by entities seedlike securities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact or even without contact over long distances.
All these statements at the beginning of the existence of microorganisms were speculative and not based on data or science. The organisms have not tested, observed or correctly and accurately described until the 17th century. The reason is that all these early studies were not the microscope.
History of the discovery of microorganisms
See also: History of biology
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the first microbiologist and the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe microorganisms, using a microscope of his own design, and has been one of the most important contributions to biology. Robert Hooke was the first to use a microscope to observe living things his book Micrographia in 1665 contained descriptions of plant cells.
Before the discovery of microorganisms Leeuwenhoek in 1675, had been a mystery why grapes could be turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why the food spoil. Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these processes and microorganisms, but the use of a microscope, shows that there are life forms that were not visible to the naked eye. Leeuwenhoek's discovery and subsequent observations by Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur, ended the long-standing belief that life spontaneously appeared from non-living substances during the process of deterioration.
Lazzaro Spallanzani found the broth to sterilize it and kill any body in it. He noted that the new micro-organisms can be made in a stock if the stock is exposed to air. Louis Pasteur is complemented by the results of exposing Spallanzani boiled broths to air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from crossing the middle growth, and also in vessels with no filter, with air being admitted through a curved tube that would not allow dust particles to come into contact with broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensure that no microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of their experience. Nothing grew in the broth through Pasteur experience. This means that living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores in the dust, rather than spontaneously in the broth. Thus, Pasteur dealt the final blow to the theory of spontaneous generation and supported germ theory.
In 1767, Dr. JZ Holwell said Indian doctors at that time knew that diseases caused by microbes, "They set as a principle, that the immediate cause of smallpox exists in the way of all mortal beings humans and animals that mediation (or second) case as, bringing the first and throws in a state of fermentation, is an invisible crowd of little animals that float in the atmosphere, which are the cause of all disease outbreaks, but especially of smallpox. "
In 1876, Robert Koch established that microbes can cause diseases. He noted that the blood of cattle that have been infected with Anthrax always had a large number of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that he could transmit the Anthrax from one animal to another, a small blood sample from the infected animal and injecting it in a healthy environment, causing the animal to be healthy patient. It also concluded bacteria can grow in a broth, then injected into a healthy environment cause animal diseases y. Based on these experiences, has developed criteria for a causal link between a microorganism and a disease and is now known as Koch's postulates. Despite these assumptions can be applied in all cases, retain a meaning historical development of scientific thought and are still used today.
Classification and structure
Evolutionary tree showing the ancestors common of the three domains of life. Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, green and archaea. The relative positions of some phyla are shown around the tree.
Microorganisms are can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic organization of life on the planet. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while that a number of eukaryotes are microscopic, including most protists, some fungi and some animals and plants. The viruses are generally considered non-life and therefore are not microbes, although the fields of microbiology also encompasses the study of viruses.
Prokaryotes
Main article: prokaryotes
The Prokaryotes are organisms without nuclei and other organelles associated membrane. They are almost always unicellular, although some species such as myxobacteria can be grouped into structures complex in the context of their life cycle.
Composed of two domains, bacteria and archaea, prokaryotes are the most abundant and diverse organisms on Earth and live in almost any environment where liquid water is available and the temperature is below 140 C. They are found in sea water, soil, air, animals brochures springs gastro-intestinal warm and deep into the earth's crust in rocks. Virtually all surfaces that are not specifically covered by sterilized prokaryotes. The number of prokaryotes on Earth is estimated at around five million trillion trillion pounds, or May 1030, representing at least half of the biomass on Earth.
Bacteria
Main article: Bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus, magnified about 10,000 x
The bacteria are practically all invisible to the naked view, except for some very rare exceptions, as namibiensis Thiomargarita. They no membranous organelles, and can run and play as single cells, but often aggregate in colonies together. Its genome is usually a single loop of DNA, but can also accommodate small pieces of DNA called plasmids. These plasmids can be transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation. The bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall that provides strength and rigidity of their cells. They reproduce by fission or sometimes by budding, but not to undergo sexual reproduction. Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria is a survival mechanism, no playback. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow very quickly and can double as briefly every 10 minutes.
Archaea
Main article: Archaea
Archaea are unicellular organisms that lack nuclei. In the past, differences between bacteria and archaea are not recognized and archaea were classified with bacteria in the kingdom Monera. However, 1990, microbiologist Carl Woese proposed three domain system that divided living organisms into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. Archaea bacteria differs both genetics and biochemistry. For example, while the bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, membranes were Archaic make ether lipids.
Archaea were first described in extreme environments such as hot water sources, but have since been found in all habitat types. Only now are scientists beginning to understand how archaea are common in the environment, with the Crenarchaeota are the most common form of life at sea, dominating ecosystems below 150 m depth. These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in the oxidation of ammonia.
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic Ostreococcus is the smallest known free living with an average size of 0.8 m
Main article: Eukaryote
Most of living things that are visible to the naked eye in the adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. However, a large number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the nucleus of the cell, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in cells. The core is an organelle that contains DNA that constitutes the genome of a cell. DNA itself is arranged in complex chromosomes. Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as that are in place of citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. They evolved from symbiotic bacteria and maintain a vestige of the genome. As bacteria plant cells have cell walls and contain organelles such as chloroplasts, in addition to the organelles in eukaryotes. Producing energy from light by bacterial photosynthesis, chloroplasts, and were also originally symbiotic.
eukaryotic unicellular eukaryotic organisms that consist of a single cell over of its life cycle. This qualification is important since most multicellular eukaryotes composed of a single cell called a zygote at the beginning of its life cycle. microbial eukaryotes are haploid or diploid, and some organizations multiple nuclei of cells (see coenocyte). However, all organisms are microscopic unicellular eukaryotes and some are made of several cells.
Protista
Main article: Protista
Groups of eukaryotes, protists are the most commonly unicellular and microscopic. It is a diverse group of organizations that are not easy to classify. Several algae species are multicellular protists, and clay molds have life cycles that involve only the change between the unicellular, colonial and multicellular. How many species of protozoa is uncertain, since they may have identified only a small proportion of the diversity in this group of organisms.
A microscopic mite Lorryia formosa.
Pets
Main article: Micro-animals
Generally animals are multicellular, but some are too small to be visible to the naked eye. Arthropods are dust mites and dust mites microscopic dust. Microscopic crustaceans include copepods and cladocerans, while many nematodes are too small to be visible to the naked view. Another group of animals are especially common microscopic rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in freshwater. Micro-animals reproduce sexually and asexually and may reach new habitats as eggs that survive harsh environments to kill the adult animal. However, some simple animals such as rotifers and nematodes, dry completely and remain dormant for long periods of time.
Mushrooms
Main article: Fungus
The fungi have several unicellular species such as yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some pathogenic fungi such as Candida albicans yeast can Phenotypic switching experience and grow as single cells in some settings, and other filamentous hyphae. Fungi reproduce both asexually, by fission binary or emerging, as well as through the production of spores, called conidia when produced asexually, or basidiospores when produced sexually.
Plants
Main article: Ground
Green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae classified as protists, others such as charophytes Embryophyta classified plants, which are the best known group of land plants. Algae can grow as individual cells or in long chains of cells. Green algae are unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, and colonial coccoid and filamentous forms. In Charales that algae are more closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several different tissues within the body. There are about 6,000 species of green algae.
Habitats and ecology
The organisms are present in almost all habitats in nature. Even in hostile environments as the poles, deserts, rocks, geysers and the depths of the sea. Some types of microorganisms have adapted to extreme conditions and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks near 7 km below the surface of the Earth, and it was suggested that the amount of living organisms below the earth's surface can be comparable to the amount of life in or on the surface. Extremophiles have been known to survive for a long period in a vacuum, and can be very resistant to radiation, perhaps they can survive in space. Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other agencies Key some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others may be harmful to the host organism (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in the host, are known as pathogens.
Extremophiles
Main article: extremophiles
Extremophiles are microbes that have adapted so they can survive and even thrive in conditions that are usually fatal to most forms of life. For example, some species have been found in the following environments ends:
Temperature: as high as 130 C (266 F), as low as 17 ° C (1.4 F),
The acidity / alkalinity: pH less than 0, up to pH 11.5
Salinity: until saturation
Pressure: up to 1.000 to 2.000 atm, 0 atm (eg vacuum of space)
Radiation: up 5kGy
Extremophiles are significant in several ways. They extend terrestrial life much of the hydrosphere of the Earth's crust and atmosphere, their own coping mechanisms of evolution its extreme environment can be exploited in bio-technology, and its existence in extreme conditions increases the chances of extraterrestrial life.
Soil microbes
The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. One way that can happen is in the nodules on the roots of legumes containing symbiotic bacteria Mesorhizobium genera Rhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium and Azorhizobium.
symbiotic microbes
symbiotic microbes such as fungi and algae in lichens form a partnership. Some fungi form a symbiotic relationship with trees mycorhizzal that increase the supply of nutrients to the tree.
Importance
Microorganisms are essential to human beings and the environment as they participate in the Earth's cycles of elements such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle and perform other key functions in almost all ecosystems, such as recycling are other dead bodies and waste decomposition. Microbes also have an important place in most higher-order multicellular organisms as symbionts. Many blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on an improper balance of microbes.
The use in food
Main article: Fermentation (food)
Microorganisms are used in the making, wine, cooking, pickling and other processes of intake food.
They are also used to control the fermentation process in the production of fermented dairy products like yogurt and cheese. The crops also flavor and aroma, and inhibit reactions agencies.
The use in water treatment
Main article: Wastewater Treatment
microbes are especially crop used in the biological treatment of sewage and industrial effluents, a process known as bioaugmentation.
Energy use
Section View also: Algae fuel, cellulosic ethanol, and ethanol fermentation
The microbes used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and the jet produce biogas methane. Scientists are investigating the use of algae to produce liquid fuels and bacteria to convert different types of agricultural waste and urban fuel use.
Use science
Germs are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics and biology molecular. The yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) are important in the model in science because they are simple eukaryotes that can increase rapidly in many and are easily manipulated. They are particularly useful in genetics, genomics and proteomics. Microbes can be exploited to use such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes for living fuel cells and as a solution to pollution.
Use in War
Main article: Biological warfare
In the Middle Ages, the bodies were thrown castles in patients over the seats with catapults and other siege engines. People close to the bodies were exposed to Agent lethal pathogen and is likely to spread other pathogens.
Importance in human health
digestion of human
More Information on health: the flora bacterial flora of man # of man and man
Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other organizations, larger. For example, bacteria that live in the digestive contribute to immunity in human intestinal synthesis of vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates.
Diseases Immunology
Article: Pathogens
Microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases. The agencies involved pathogenic bacteria responsible for diseases such as fever, tuberculosis and Anthrax, protozoa, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness and toxoplasmosis, and fungi that cause diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogens viral, which are usually not classified as living organisms and therefore are not microorganisms in the strict definition. In 2007, no clear example of the Archaic pathogens known, although it suggested a relationship between the presence of some methanogens and human periodontal disease.
Importance of ecology
For more information: Decomposition
The microbes are essential for the decomposition of the necessary processes cycle nitrogen and other elements to return to the natural world.
Hygiene
Main article: Hygiene
Hygiene is the prevention of infection or food spoiling by eliminating environmental microorganisms. As microorganisms, especially bacteria are everywhere, which means in most cases, the reduction of harmful microorganisms to acceptable levels. However, in some cases, is necessary for an object or a substance completely sterile, ie devoid of all living creatures and the virus. A good example of this is a hypodermic needle.
In micro-organisms in food preparation are reduced by preservation methods (such as adding vinegar), utensils, cleaning materials used in the preparation, storage, or cool temperatures for short periods. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are irradiation and the use an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker.
There are several methods to study the level of hygiene in a food sample, water, equipment, etc. Samples water can be filtered through a fine mesh strainer. This filter is then placed in a nutrient medium. Micro-organisms in the filter then grow to form a visible colony. Microorganisms damage can be detected in foods by placing a sample in a nutrient broth enrichment for organisms in question. Various methods such as selective media or PCR, can be used for detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces such as kitchen utensils, can be tested by touching a piece solid nutrient medium, and micro-organisms to grow in this.
There are conditions that all organisms to grow and therefore often different methods require multiple. For example, a food sample can be analyzed in three different culture media to indicate the presence of "total" bacteria (conditions in which many but not all, bacteria multiply), molds (conditions in which bacterial growth is prevented by eg antibiotics) and coliform bacteria (These signs of sewage contamination).
See also
Biological warfare
Biology
Culture collection
microbial intelligence
Nanobacterium
Petri plate
Prokaryotes
Soil contamination
Dye
Virus
Bacterium
Protozoa
Mushrooms
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↑ See Deinococcus radiodurans
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External Links
Our planet microbial a poster of the National Academy of Sciences about the positive role microbes.
"Uncharted Microbial World: Microbes and their activities on the environment" report American Academy of Microbiology
Understanding microbial world: the new science of metagenomics a 20-page booklet providing an overview of education basic microbial metagenomics and our planet.
Eukaryotic Tree of Life
Microbe Genome News Network News
Germs Patent List patent-related germs
Online Medical Microbiology textbook
Under the microscope: A look at all the little things in books microbiology text online by Timothy Paustian and Gary Roberts of the University of Wisconsin-Madison
Online Databases MicrobeID.com identification of bacteria and probabilistic identification key
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